http://www.aber.ac.uk/~dgc/gramtv.html

By: Daniel Chandlers, 1994  

Camera Techniques: Distance and Angle 

Long shot (LS). Shot which shows all or most of a fairly large subject (for example, a person) and usually much of the surroundings.

Extreme Long Shot (ELS) - See establishing shot: In this type of shot the camera is at its

Medium Long Shot (MLS): In the case of a standing actor, the lower frames line cuts off his feet and ankles. Some documentaries with soc ial themes keep people in the longer shots, in order to emphasize the circumstances rather than the individual.

Establishing Shot. Opening shot or sequence, frequently an exterior 'General View' as an Extreme

Long Shot (ELS). Used to set the scene.

Medium Shots. Medium Shot or Mid-Shot (MS). In such a shot the subject or actor and its setting occupy roughly equal areas in the frame. In the case of the standing actor, the lower frame passes through the waist. There is space for hand gestures to be seen.

Medium Close Shot (MCS): The setting can still be seen. The lower frame line passes through the chest of the actor. Medium shots are fre quently used for the tight presentation of two actors

Close-up (CU). A picture, which shows a fairly small part of the scene, such as a character's face, in great detail so, that it fills the screen. It abstracts the subject from a context.

MCU (Medium Close-Up): head and shoulders.

BCU (Big Close-Up): forehead to chin. Close-ups focus attention on a person's feelings or reactions.

Low Angle Shot- places camera below the character, exaggerating his or her importance.

Overhead Shot is one made from a position directly above the action.

Viewpoint. The apparent distance and angle from which the camera views and records the subject. Do not confuse with point-of-view shots or subjective camera shots.

Point-of-View Shot (POV). A shot made from a camera position close to the line of sight of a performer who is to be watching the action shown in the point-of-view shot.

Two-Shot. A shot of two people together.

Selective focus. Rendering only part of the action field in sharp focus through the use of a shallow depth field. A shift of focus from foreground to background or vice

Wide-Angle Shot. A shot of a broad field of action taken with a wide-angle lens.

Tilted Shot. When the camera is tilted on its axis so that normally vertical lines appear slanted to the left or right, ordinary expectations are frustrated. Such shots are often used in mystery and suspense films to create a sense of unease in the vie wer. 

Camera Techniques: Movement 

Zoom. In zooming in the camera does not move; the lens is focussed down from a long shot to a close-up whilst the picture is still being shown. The subject is magnified, and attent ion is concentrated on details previously invisible as the shot tightens (contrast tracking). It may be used to surprise the viewer. Zooming out reveals more of the scene (perhaps where a character is, or to whom he or she is speaking) as the shot widens. Zooming in rapidly brings not only the subject but also the background hurtling towards the viewer, which can be disconcerting. Zooming in and then out creates an ugly 'yo-yo' effect.

Following Pan. The camera swivels (in the same base position) to follow a moving subject. A space is left in front of the subject: the p an 'leads' rather than 'trails'. A pan usually begins and ends with a few seconds of still picture to give greater impact. The speed of a pan across a subject creates a particular mood as well as establishing the viewer's relationship with the subject.

Surveying Pan. The camera slowly searches the scene: may build to a climax or anticlimax.

Tilt. A vertical movement of the camera - up or down- while the camera mounting stays fixed.

Crab. The camera moves (crabs) right or left.

Tracking (dollying). Tracking involves the camera itself being moved smoothly towards or away from the subject (contrast with zooming). Tracking in (like zooming) draws the viewer into a closer, more intense relationship with the subject; moving away tends to create emotional distance. Tracking back tends to divert attention to the edges of the screen. The speed of tracking may affect the viewer's mood. Rapid tracking (especially tracking in) is exciting; tracking back relaxes interest. In a dramatic narrative we may sometimes be drawn forward towards a subject against our will. Camera movement parallel to a moving subject permits speed w ithout drawing attention to the camera itself.

Hand-Held Camera. A hand-held camera can produce a jerky, bouncy, unsteady image, which may create a sense of immediacy or chaos. Its us e is a form of subjective treatment.

Process Shot. A shot made of action in front of a rear projection screen having on it still or moving images as a background.

Cut. Sudden change of shot from one viewpoint o relocation to another. Cutting may: 1.change the scene; 2. compress time; 3. vary the point of view; or build up an image or ide a. Less abrupt transitions are achieved with the fade, dissolve, and wipe .

Matched Cut. In a "matched cut" a familiar relationship between the shots may make the change seem smooth: continuity of direction; 2. completed action; 3. a simila r center of attention in the frame; 4. one-step change of shot size (e.g. long to medium); 5. a change of angle (conventionally at least 30 degrees).

*The cut is usually made on an action (for example, a person begins to turn towards a door in one shot; the next shot, taken from the doorway, catches him/her compl eting the turn). Because the viewer's eye is absorbed by the action he is unlikely to notice the movement of the cut itself.

Jump Cut. Abrupt switch from one scene to another which may be used deliberately to make a point. Sometimes boldly used to begin or end action. Alternatively, it ma y be result of poor pictorial continuity, perhaps from deleting a section.

Motivated Cut. Cut made just at the point where what has occurred makes the viewer immediately want to see something which is not curren tly visible (causing us, for instance, to accept compression of time). A typical feature is the shot/reverse shot technique (cuts coinciding with changes of speaker). Editing and camera work appears to be determined by the action. It is intimately associa ted with the "privileged point of view".

Cutting Rate. Frequent cuts may be used as deliberate interruptions to shock, surprise or emphasize.

Cutting Rhythm. A cutting rhythm may be progressively shortened to increase tension. Cutting rhythm may create an exciting, lyrical or s taccato effect in the viewer.

Cross-Cut. A cut from one line of action to another.

Cutaway/Cutaway Shot (CA). A bridging, inter-cut shot between two shots of the same subject. It represents a secondary activity occurring at the same time as the ma in action. It may be preceded by a definite look or glance out of frame by a participant, or it may show something of which those in the preceding shot are unaware.

Place or Viewpoint. It is often used to shortcut the passing of time.

Reaction Shot. Any shot, usually a cutaway, in which a participant reacts to action which has just occurred.

A bridging Shot (normally taken with a separate camera) to separate two shots which would have reversed the continuity of direction.

Fade, Dissolve . Both fades and dissolves are gradual transitions between shots. In a fade the picture gradually appears from (fades in) or disappears to (fades out) a blank screen. A slow fade-in is a quiet introduction to a scene; a slow fade-out is a peaceful ending. Time lapses are often suggested by a slow fade-out and fade-in. A Buffer Sho t, neutral shot, dissolve, or mix i nvolves fading out one picture while fading up another on top of it. The impression is of an image merging into and then becoming another. A slow mix usually suggests differences in time and place.

Defocus or Ripple Dissolves: are sometimes used to indicate flashbacks in time.

Superimpositions. Two of more images placed directly over each other (e.g. and eye and a camera lens to create a visual metaphor).

Wipe. An optical effect marking a transition between two shots. It appears to supplant an image by wiping it off the screen (as a line or in some complex pattern, s uch as by appearing to turn a page). The wipe is a technique, which draws attention to itself and acts as a clear marker of change.

Split Screen. The division of the screen into parts which can show the viewer several images at the same time (sometimes the same action from slightly different perspectives, sometimes similar actions at different times). This can convey the excitement and frenzy of certain activities, but it can also overload the viewer.

Stock Shot. Footage already available and used for another purpose than the one for which it was originally filmed.  

Manipulating Time 

Screen Time: a period of time represented by events within a film (e.g. a day, a week).

Subjective Time. The time experienced or felt by a character in a film, as revealed through camera

Compressed Time. The compression of time between sequences or scenes, and within scenes. This is the most frequent manipulation of time in films: it is achieved with cuts or dissolves. In a dramatic narrative, if climbing a staircase is not a significant part of the plot, a shot of a character starting up the stairs may then cut to him/her entering a room. The logic of the situation and o ur past experience of medium tells us that the room is somewhere at the top of the stairs. Long journeys can be compressed into seconds. Time may also be compressed between cutaways in parallel editing. The use of dissolves was once a cue for the passage of a relatively long period of time.  

***** Long take. A single shot (or take, or run of the camera) which lasts for a relatively lengthy period of time. The long take has an 'authentic' feel since it i s not inherently dramatic.  

Simultaneous Time. Events in different places can be presented as occurring at the same moment, by parallel editing or cross-cutting, by multiple images or split-screen. The conventional clue to indicate that events or shots are taking place at the same time is that there is no progression of shots: shots are either inserted into the main action or alternated with each other until the str ands are somehow united.

Slow Motion. Action which takes place on the screen at a slower rate than the rate at which the action took place before the camera. Thi s is used: a) to make a fast action visible; b) to make a familiar action strange; c) to emphasize a dramatic moment. It can have a lyric and romantic quality or it can amplify violence.

Accelerated Motion (undercranking) . This is used: a) to make a slow action visible; b) to make a familiar action funny; c) to increase the thrill of speed.

Reverse Motion. Reproducing action backwards, for comic, magical or explanatory effect.

Freeze-frame. This gives the image the appearance of a still photograph. Clearly not a naturalistic device.

Flashback. A break in the chronology of a narrative in which events from the past are disclosed to the viewer. Formerly indicated conven tionally with defocus or ripple dissolves.

Flashforward. Much less common than the flashback. Not normally associated with a particular character. Associated with objective treatm ents.

***Extended or expanded time/overlapping action. The expansion of time can be accomplished by inter-cutting a series of shots, or by filming the action from differe nt angles and editing them together. Part of an action may be repeated from another viewpoint, e.g. a character is shown from the inside of a building opening a door and the next shot, from the outside, shows him/her opening it again. Used nakedly this de vice disrupts the audience's sense of real time. The technique may be used unobtrusively to stretch time, perhaps to exaggerate, for dramatic effect, the time taken to walk down a corridor. Sometimes combined with slow motion.

Ambiguous Time. Within the context of a well-defined time-scheme sequences may occur which are ambiguous time. This is m ost frequently communicated through dissolves and superimpositions.

Universal Time. This is deliberately created to suggest universal relevance. Ideas rather than examples are emphasized. Context may be disrupted by frequent cuts and by the extensive use of close-ups and other shots which do not reveal a specific background.

Selective Sound. The removal of some sounds and the retention of others to make significant sounds more recognizable or for dramatic eff ect - to create an atmosphere, meaning and emotional nuance. Selective sound (and amplification) may make us aware of a watch or a bomb ticking. This can sometimes be a subjective device, leading us to identify with a character: to hear what he or she hea rs. Sound may be so selective that the lack of ambient sound can make it seem artificial.

Sound Perspective/Aural Perspective. The impression of distance in sound, usually created through the use of selective sound. Note that even in live television a mi crophone is deliberately positioned, just as the camera is, and therefore may privilege certain participants.

Sound Bridge. Adding to continuity through sound, by running sound (narration, dialogue or music) from one shot across a cut to another shot to make the action seem uninterrupted.

Dubbed Dialogue. Post-recording the voice-track in the studio, the actors matching their words to the on-screen lip movements. Not confi ned to foreign-language dubbing.

Wildtrack (asynchronous sound). Sound which was self-evidently recorded separately from the visuals with which it is shown. For example, a studio voice-over added to a visual sequence later.

Parallel (synchronous) Sound. Sound "caused" by some event on screen, and which matches the action.

Sound Effects (SFX). Any sound from any source other than synchronized dialogue, narration or music. Dubbed-in Sound Effects: can add to the illusion of reality: a stage set door may gain from the addition of the sound of a heavy door slamming or creaking

Music. Helps to establish a sense of the pace of the accompanying scene. The rhythm of music usually dictates the rhythm of the cuts. Th e emotional coloring of the music also reinforces the mood of the scene. Background music is asynchronous music which accompanies a film. It is not normally intended to be noticeable. Conventionally, background music accelerates for a chase sequence, beco mes louder to underscore a dramatically important action. Through repetition it can also link shots scenes and sequences Foreground music is often synchronous music which finds its source within the screen events (e.g. from a radio, TV, stereo or musician s in the scene). It may be a more credible and dramatically plausible way of bringing music into a program than background music (a string orchestra sometimes seems bizarre in a Western).

Silence. The juxtaposition of an image and silence can frustrate expectations, provoke odd, self-conscious responses, intensify our atte ntion, make us apprehensive, or make us feel dissociated from reality.

Lighting 

Soft and Harsh lighting. Soft and harsh lighting can manipulate a viewer's attitude towards a setting or a < /FONT>character. The way light is used can make objects, people and environments look beautiful or ugly, soft or harsh, artificial or real. Light may be used expressively or realistically.

Backlighting. A romantic heroine is often backlit to create a halo effect on her hair. 

Narrative style 

Subjective Treatment. The camera treatment is called 'subjective' when the viewer is treated as a participant e.g. when the camera is ad dressed directly or when it imitates the viewpoint or movement of a character). We may be shown not only what a character sees, but also how he or she sees it. A temporary 'first-person' use of camera as the character can be effective in conveying unusual states of mind or powerful experiences, such as dreaming, remembering, or moving very fast. If overused, it can draw too much attention to the camera. Moving the camera (or zooming) is a subjective camera effect especially if the movement is not gradual or smooth.

Objective Treatment. The 'objective point of view' involves treating the viewer as an observer. A major example is the 'privileged point of view' which involves watching from omniscient vantage points. Keeping the camera still whilst the subject moves towards or away from it is an objective camera effect.

Editing

'Invisible editing'. This is the omniscient style of the realist feature films developed in Hollywood. The vast majority of narrativ e films are now edited in this way. The cuts are intended to be unobtrusive except for special dramatic shots. It supports rather than dominates the narrative: the story and the behavior of its characters are the center of attention. The technique gives t he impression that the edits are always required are motivated by the events in the 'reality' that the camera is recording rather than the result of a desire to tell a story in a particular way. The 'seamlessness' convinces us of its 'realism', but its de vices include: the use of matched cuts (rather than jump cuts); motivated cuts; changes of shot through camera movement; long takes; the use of the sound bridge; parallel development.

The editing isn't really 'invisible', but the conventions have become so familiar to visual littermates that they no longer consciously notice them.  

Mise-en-scene. (Contrast montage). 'Realistic' technique whereby meaning is conveyed through the relationship of things visible within a single shot (rather than, as with montage, the relationship between shots). An attempt is preserve space and time as much as possible; editing or fragmenting of scenes is minimized. Composition is therefore ext remely important. The way people stand and in relation to each other are important. Long shots and long takes are characteristic.

Montage/montage editing. In its broadest meaning, the process of cutting up film and editing it into the screened sequence. However, it may also be used to mean intellectual montage - the juxtaposition of short shots to represent action or ideas - or (especially in Hollywood)

 Formats and other features 

Shot. A single run of the camera or the piece of film resulting from such a run.

Scene. A dramatic unit composed of a single or several shots. A scene usually takes place in a continuous time period, in the same setting, and involves the same characters.

Sequence. A dramatic unit composed of several scenes, all linked together by their emotional and narrative momentum.

 

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